A | B | C | D | E| F | G | H | I| J | K | L | M| N | O | P | Q| R | S | T | U| V | W | X | Y| Z

A

allegory(AL-eh-GOR-ee): a narrative that serves as anextended metaphor. Allegories are written in the form of fables, parables,poems, stories, and almost any other style or genre. The main purpose of anallegory is to tell a story that has characters, a setting, as well as othertypes of symbols, that have both literal andfigurative meanings. The difference between an allegory and a symbol is that anallegory is a complete narrative that conveys abstract ideas to get a point across,while a symbol is a representation of an idea or concept that can have adifferent meaning throughout a literary work (A Handbook to Literature).One well-known example of an allegory is Dante’s The Divine Comedy.In Inferno, Dante is on a pilgrimage to try to understand his own life,but his character also represents every man who is in search of his purpose inthe world (Merriam Webster Encyclopedia of Literature). Although Virgilliterally guides Dante on his journey through the mystical inferno, he can alsobe seen as the reason and human wisdom that Dante has been looking for in hislife. See A Handbook to Literature, Merriam Webster’sEncyclopedia of Literature. MachellaCaldwell, Student, University of North Carolina atPembroke

alliteration (a-LIT-uh-RAY-shuhn): a pattern of sound that includes the repetition ofconsonant sounds.  The repetition can be located at the beginning ofsuccessive words or inside the words. Poets often use alliteration to audiblyrepresent the action that is taking place.  For instance, in the Inferno,Dante states: "I saw it there, but I saw nothing in it, except the risingof the boiling bubbles" (261). The repetition of the "b" soundsrepresents the sounds of bubbling, or the bursting action of the boiling pitch.In addition, in Sir Phillip Sidney's Astropheland Stella, the poet states: "Biting my truant pen, beating myself forspite" (Line 13). This repetition of  the"t" sound represents the action of the poet; one can hear andvisualize his anguish as he bites the pen. Also in Astropheland Stella, the poet states, "Oft turning others' leaves, to see ifthence would flow, / Some fresh and fruitful showers upon my sunburn'd brain" (7-8). Again, the poet repeats the"fr" sounds to emphasize the speaker'sdesire for inspiration in expressing his feelings. Poets may also usealliteration to call attention to a phrase and fix it into the reader's mind;thus, it is useful for emphasis. Therefore, not only does alliteration providepoetry or prose with a unique sound, it can place emphasis on specific phrasesand represent the action that is taking place. See A Handbook to Literature,Literature: An Introduction to Fiction, Poetry, and Drama. Stacey AnnSingletary, Student, University of North Carolina atPembroke

allusion (a-LOO-zhuhn):  a reference in a literary work to a person,place, or thing in history or another work of literature. Allusions are oftenindirect or brief references to well-known characters or events. Specificexamples of allusions can be found throughout Dante’s Inferno. Ina passage, Dante alludes to the Greek mythological figures, Phaethon and Icarus, to express his fear as he descends from the airinto the eighth circle of hell. He states:

I doubt if Phaethon feared more - that time
he dropped the sun-reins of his father's chariot
and burned the streak of sky we see today -

or if poor Icarus did -feeling his sides
unfeathering as the wax began to melt,
his father shouting:  "Wrong, your course is wrong" (Canto XVII:106-111).

Allusions are often used to summarize broad, complex ideasor emotions in one quick, powerful image. For example, to communicate the ideaof self-sacrifice one may refer to Jesus, as part of Jesus' story portrays himdying on the cross in order to save mankind (Matthew 27:45-56). In addition, toexpress righteousness, one might allude to Noah who "had no faults and wasthe only good man of his time" (Genesis 6:9-22). Furthermore, the idea offatherhood or patriarchial love can be wellunderstood by alluding to Abraham, who was the ancestor of many nations(Genesis 17:3-6). Finally, Cain is an excellent example to convey banishment,rejection, or evil, for he was cast out of his homeland by God (Genesis 4:12).Thus, allusions serve an important function in writing in that they allow thereader to understand a difficult concept by relating to an already familiarstory. See A Handbook to Literature, Literature: An Introduction toFiction, Poetry, and Drama. Stacey Ann Singletary, Student, University of North Carolina at Pembroke

antagonist(an-TAG-uh-nist):  a character in a story orpoem who deceives, frustrates, or works again the main character, or protagonist, in some way. The antagonist doesn’tnecessarily have to be an person. It could be death,the devil, an illness, or any challenge that prevents the main character fromliving “happily ever after." In fact, the antagonist could be acharacter of virtue in a literary work where the protagonist represents evil.An antagonist in the story of Genesis is the serpent. He convinces Eve todisobey God, setting off a chain of events.that leadsto Adam and Eve being banished from paradise. In the play Othello byWilliam Shakespeare, the antagonist is Iago.Throughout the play, he instigates conflicts and sows distrust among the maincharacters, Othello and Desdemona, two lovers who have risked their livelihoodin order to elope. Iago is determined to break uptheir marriage due to his suspicions that Othello has taken certain libertieswith his wife. See Benet’s Reader’s Encyclopedia. VictoriaHenderson, Student, University of North Carolina atPembroke

aside (uh-SIDE): anactor’s speech, directed to the audience, that is not supposed to beheard by other actors on stage. An aside is usually used to let the audienceknow what a character is about to do or what he or she is thinking. Forexample, in Othello, Iago gives severalasides, informing the audience of his plans and how he will try to achieve hisgoals. Asides are important because they increase an audience's involvement ina play by giving them vital information pertaining what is happening, bothinside of a character's mind and in the plot of the play. See A Handbook toLiterature, The Concise Oxford Dictionary of Literary Terms, Merriam Webster’s Encyclopedia of Literature.Dawn Oxendine, Student, University of North Carolina at Pembroke
 

B

ballad(BAL-uhd): a narrative folk song. The ballad istraced back to the Middle Ages. Ballads were usuallycreated by common people and passed orally due to the illiteracy of the time.Subjects for ballads include killings, feuds, important historical events, andrebellion. For example, in the international ballad “Lord Randall,”the young man is poisoned by his sweetheart, and in “Edward,” theson commits patricide. A common stylistic element of the ballad is repetition.“Lord Randall” illustrates this well with the phrase at the end ofeach verse: “…mother, mak my bed soon,for I’m sick at the heart and I fain wad lie down.” A Handbookto Literature notes the ballad occurs in very early literature in nearlyevery nation. Therefore, in addition to being entertaining, ballads can help usto understand a given culture by showing us what values or norms that culturedeemed important. See A Handbook to Literature, Benet’sReader’s Encyclopedia, Merriam-Webster’s Encyclopedia ofLiterature, The Book of Ballads. MonicaHorne, Student, University of North Carolina atPembroke
 

C

character(KARE-ec-ter): a person who is responsible for thethoughts and actions within a story, poem, or other literature. Characters areextremely important because they are the medium through which a readerinteracts with a piece of literature. Every character has his or her ownpersonality, which a creative author uses to assist in forming the plot of astory or creating a mood. The different attitudes, mannerisms, and evenappearances of characters can greatly influence the other major elements in aliterary work, such as theme, setting, and tone. With this understanding of thecharacter, a reader can become more aware of other aspects of literature, suchas symbolism, giving the reader a more complete understanding of the work. Thecharacter is one of the most important tools available to the author. In theballad "Edward," for instance, the character himself sets the tone ofthe ballad within the first stanza. After reading the first few stanzas, onelearns that Edward has murdered his father and is very distraught. His attitudechanges to disgust and finally to despair when he realizes the consequences hemust face for his actions. An example of the attitudes and personalities ofcharacters determining the theme is also seen in the book of Genesis. The proudpersonality of Cain and the humble personality of Abel help create the conflictfor this story. Cain and Abel were brothers, possibly twins, who displayedintense sibling rivalry. God was not pleased with Cain's offerings, but foundpleasure in Abel's offerings. Provoked by God's displeasure with him, Cainmurdered his own brother out of jealousy. Victoria Henderson, Student, University of North Carolina at Pembroke

connotation (KAH-nuh-TAE-shun): an association that comes along with aparticular word. Connotations relate not to a word's actual meaning, or denotation, but rather to the ideas or qualities thatare implied by that word. A good example is the word "gold." The denotation of gold is a malleable, ductile, yellow element. Theconnotations, however, are the ideas associated with gold, such as greed,luxury, or avarice. Another example occurs in the Book of Genesis. Jacob says:“Dan will be a serpent by the roadside, a viper along the path, that bites the horse’s heels so that its ridertumbles backward" (Gen 49:17). In this passage, Dan is not literally goingto become a snake. However, describing Dan as a "snake" and"viper" forces the reader to associate him with the negativequalities that are commonly associated with reptiles, such as slyness, danger,and evil. Dan becomes like a snake, sly and dangerous to the riders. Writersuse connotation to make their writing more vivid and interesting to read. See ADictionary of Literary Terms and Literary Theory. Jennifer Lance,Student, University of North Carolina atPembroke

couplet (KUP-let): astyle of poetry defined as a complete thought written in two lines with rhymingends. The most popular of the couplets is the heroic couplet. The heroiccouplet consists of two rhyming lines of iambic pentameter usually having apause in the middle of each line. One of William Shakespeare’s trademarkswas to end a sonnet with a couplet, as in the poem“Shall I Compare Thee to a Summer’sDay”:

So long as men can breathe or eyes can see,
So long as lives this, and this gives life to thee.

By using the couplet Shakespeare would often signal the endof a scene in his plays as well. An example of a scene’s end signaled bya couplet is the end of Act IV of Othello. The scene ends with Desdemona’slines:

Good night. Good night. Heaven me such uses send.
Not to pick bad from bad, but by bad mend.

See A Handbook to Literature, Benet’sReader’s Encyclopedia, Mirriam-Webster’sEncyclopedia of Literature, Literature:An Introduction to Fiction, Poetry, and Drama. Monica Horne, Student, University of North Carolina at Pembroke
 

D

denotation(DEE-no-TAE-shuhn):  the exact meaning of aword, without the feelings or suggestions that the word may imply. It is theopposite of  “connotation”in that it is the “dictionary” meaning of a word, without attachedfeelings or associations. Some examples of denotations are:

1. heart: an organ thatcirculates blood throughout the body. Here the word "heart" denotesthe actual organ, while in another context, the word "heart" mayconnote feelings of love or heartache.
2. sweater: a knitted garment for the upperbody. The word "sweater" may denote pullover sweaters or cardigans,while “sweater” may also connote feelings of warmness or security.

Denotation allows the reader to know the exact meaning of aword so that he or she will better understand the work of literature. See Literature:An Introduction to Fiction, Poetry, and Drama, A Glossary of LiteraryTerms, A Dictionary of Literary Terms and Literary Theory, Webster’sDictionary. Shana Locklear, Student, University of North Carolina at Pembroke

denouement (day-noo-mon): literally meaning the action of untying, adenouement is the final outcome of the main complication in a play or story.Usually the climax (the turning point or "crisis") of the work hasalready occurred by the time the denouement occurs. It is sometimes referred toas the explanation or outcome of a drama that reveals all the secrets and misunderstandingsconnected to the plot. In the drama Othello, there is a plot to deceiveOthello into believing that his wife, Desdemona, has been unfaithful to him. Asa result of this plot, Othello kills his wife out of jealousy, the climax ofthe play. The denounement occurs soon after, whenEmilia, who was Desdemona's mistress, proves to Othello that his wife was infact honest, true, and faithful to him. Emilia reveals to Othello that herhusband, Iago, had plotted against Desdemona andtricked Othello into believing that she had been unfaithful. Iago kills Emilia in front of Othello, and she dies tellingOthello his wife was innocent. As a result of being mad with grief, Othelloplunges a dagger into his own heart. Understanding the denouement helps thereader to see how the final end of a story unfolds, and how the structure ofstories works to affect our emotions. See Encyclopedia of Literature,Miriam Webster. Shelby Locklear, Student, University of North Carolina at Pembroke

dialogue (di-UH-log): The conversation between charactersin a drama or narrative. A dialougeoccurs in most works of literature. For example, many ballads demonstrate a ocnversation between two or morecharacters. In the anonymous ballad, "Sir Patrick Spens",we are able to observe the dialogue between Sir Patrick Spensand his mirry men. In the verses 21-24, "Mak hast, mak haste, my mirry men all, Our guid schip sails the morne: O say na sae, my master deir, for I feir a deadline storme,"dialogue can be seen. According to A Handbook of Literature, dialogueserves several functions in literature. It moves the action along in a work andit also helps to characterize the personality of the speakers, which varydepending on their nationalities, jobs, social classes, and educations. It alsogives literature a more natural, conversational flow, which makes it morereadable and enjoyable. By showcasing human interaction, dialogue preventsliterature from being nothing more than a list of descriptions and actions.Dialogue varies in structure and tone depending on the people participating inthe conversation and the mood that the author is trying to maintain in his orher writing. See A Handbook to Literature,The American Heritage Dictionary. RamonGonzalez, Student, University of North Carolina atPembroke

didactic (di-DAK-tik): refers to literature or other types of artthat are instructional or informative. In this sense The Bible isdidactic because it offers guidance in moral, religious, and ethical matters.It tells stories of the lives of people that followed Christian teachings, andstories of people that decided to go against God and the consequences that theyfaced. The term "didactic" also refers to texts that are overburdenedwith instructive and factual information, sometimes to the detriment of areader's enjoyment. The opposite of "didactic" is "nondidactic." If a writer is more concerned withartistic qualities and techniques than with conveying a message, then thatpiece of work is considered to be nondidactic, evenif it is instructive. See Encyclopedia of Literature, Benet's ReadersEncyclopedia. Jennifer Baker, University of North Carolina atPembroke

dramaticmonologue (dra-MA-tik mon'-O-lôg):a literary device that is used when a characterreveals his or her innermost thoughts and feelings, those that are hiddenthroughout the course of the story line, through a poem or a speech. This speech,where only one character speaks, is recited while other characters are presentonstage. This monologue often comes during a climactic moment in a work andoften reveals hidden truths about a character, their history and theirrelationships. Also it can further develop a character's personality and alsobe used to create irony. The most famous examples of thisspecial type of monologue can be found within the poems of Robert Browning,poem such as "My Last Duchess," "The Bishop Orders hisTomb," and "Andrea Del Santo". Browning'suse of dramatic monologue has a special effect on his works. The revelations ofhis characters not only develop themselves, but they also create settingswithin the monologues with their use of vivid imagery. In Browning'sworks, the characters almost seem to take control of the story line, creating apoem of their own. Other authors whose works included dramatic monologues areRobert Frost and T.S. Elliot. See A Reader's Companion to World Literature.Jacob Gersh, Student, University of North Carolina at Pembroke
 

E

elegy(EL-e-je): a type of literature defined as a song or poem, written in elegiac couplets, that expresses sorrow or lamentation, usually forone who has died. This type of work stemmed out of a Greek work known as a "elegus," a song ofmourning or lamentation that is accompanied by the flute. Beginning in the 16thcentury, elegies took the form we know today. Two famous elegies include ThomasGray’s "Elegy Written in a Country Churchyard" and WaltWhitman’s "When Lilacs Last in the Dooryard Bloom’d".Gray’s elegy is notable in that it mourned the loss of a way of liferather than the loss of an individual. His work, which some consider to bealmost political, showed extreme discontent for strife and tyranny set upon England byOliver Cromwell. This work also acted as an outlet for Gray’sdissatisfaction with those poets who wrote in accordance with the thoughts andbeliefs of the upper class. In his elegy, Gray mourned for his country andmourned for its citizens. Whitman, inspired by the assassination of AbrahamLincoln, wrote his elegy in its classic form, showing sorrow for the loss of anindividual. See A Reader’s Companion to World Literature, and Dictionaryof World Literature.

epigram (ep-e-gram): a short poem or verse that seeks to ridicule athought or event, usually with witticism or sarcasm. These literary works werevery popular during the Renaissance in Europein the late 14th century and the Neoclassical period,which began after the Restoration in 1660. They were most commonly found inclassic Latin literature, European and English literature. In Ancient Greek, anepigram originally meant a short inscription, but its meaning was later broadenedto include any very short poems. Poems that aremeditative or satiric all fall into this category. These short poems formulatedfrom the light verse species, which concentrated on the tone of voice and theattitude of the lyric or narrative speaker toward the subject. With a relaxedmanner, lyricists would recite poems to their subjects that were comical orwhimsical. Samuel Taylor Coleridge (1771-1834), an English poet, essayist andcritic, constructed an epigram to show humor in Romanticism. His thoughts, “On a Volunteer Singer”, compares andcontrasts the death of swans with that of humans:

Swans sing before they die- ‘twere no bad thing
Should certain people die before they sing!

The ballad, “Lord Randall” illustrates a youngman who set off to meet his one true love and ends up becoming “sick atheart” with what he finds. The young man later arrives home to his familyabout to die and to each family member he leaves something sentimental. Whenasked what he leaves to his true love, he responds:

I leave her hell and fire…

This epigram tried to depict what happens to love gone sour.Epigrams have been used throughout the centuries not only to criticize but alsoto promote improvement. See Benet’s Reader’s Encyclopedia, Webster’sThird New International Dictionary (unabridged), and A Glossary ofLiterary Terms. Melanie P. Stephens, Student, University of North Carolina at Pembroke
 

F

figurativelanguage (fig-YOOR-a-tive LAN-gwije):a type of language that varies from the norms of literal language, in whichwords mean exactly what they say. Also known as the "ornaments oflanguage," figurative language does not mean exactly what it says, butinstead forces the reader to make an imaginative leap in order to comprehend anauthor's point. It usually involves a comparison between two things that maynot, at first, seem to relate to one another. In a simile,for example, an author may compare a person to an animal: "He ran like ahare down the street" is the figurative way to describe the man runningand "He ran very quickly down the street" is the literal way todescribe him. Figurative language facilitates understanding because it relatessomething unfamiliar to something familiar. Some popular examples of figurativelanguage include a simile and metaphor. See AHandbook to Literature, A Dictionary of Literary Terms and LiteraryTheory, and A Glossary of Literary Terms. CharlaCobbler, Student, University of North Carolina atPembroke

flashback (flash-BAK):“an interruption of the chronological sequence (as of a film or literarywork) of an event of earlier occurrence” (Merriam, 288). A flashback is anarrative technique that allows a writer to present past events during currentevents, in order to provide background for the current narration. By givingmaterial that occurred prior to the present event, the writer provides thereader with insight into a character's motivation and or background to aconflict. This is done by various methods, narration, dream sequences, andmemories (Holman et al, 197). For example, in the Book of Matthew, a flashbackis used when Joseph is the governor of Egypt. Upon seeing his brothersafter many years, Joseph “remembered his dreams” of his brothersand how they previously sold him into slavery (NIV, 69). Another example wouldbe the ballad of  “The Cruel Mother.”Here, a mother is remembering her murdered child. As she is going to a church,she remembers her child born, grow, and die. Later she thinks back to further inher past to remember how her own mother was unkind to her (Kennedy et al,626-627). Arthur Miller’s “Death of a Salesman” usesflashback to relate Willy Loman’s memories ofthe past. At one point, Willy is talking with his dead brother while playingcards with Charley, reliving a past conversation in the present. This shows acharacter that is mentally living in the present with the memories and eventsof the past (Roberts et al, 1232). By understanding flashbacks, the reader isable to receive more details about the current narration by filling in thedetails about the past. Melanie Stephens, Student, University of North Carolina at Pembroke
 

G

genre(ZHAHN-ruh): a type of literature. We say a poem,novel, story, or other literary work belongs to a particular genre if it sharesat least a few conventions, or standard characteristics, with other works inthat genre. For example, works in the Gothic genre often feature supernaturalelements, attempts to horrify the reader, and dark, foreboding settings,particularly very old castles or mansions. Edgar Allan Poe's short story"The Fall of the House of Usher" belongs to the Gothicgenre because it takes place in a gloomy mansion that seems to exertsupernatural control over a man who lives in it. Furthermore, Poe attempts tohorrify the reader by describing the man's ghastly face, the burial of hissister, eerie sounds in the house, and ultimately the reappearance of thesister's bloody body at the end of the story. Other genres include the pastoralpoem, epic poem, elegy, tragic drama, and bildungsroman.An understanding of genre is useful because it helps us to see how an authoradopts, subverts, or transcends the standard practices that other authors havedeveloped. See A Handbook to Literature, Benet's Reader'sEncyclopedia. Mark Canada, English professor, University of NorthCarolina at Pembroke

Gothic (goth-IK): aliterary style popular during the end of the 18th century and the beginning ofthe 19th. This style usually portrayed fantastic tales dealing with horror, despair,the grotesque and other “dark” subjects. Gothic literature wasnamed for the apparent influence of the dark gothic architecture of the periodon the genre. Also, many of these Gothic tales took places in such “gothic”surroundings. Other times, this story of darkness may occur in a more everydaysetting, such as the quaint house where the man goes mad from the"beating" of his guilt in Edgar Allan Poe's “The Tell-TaleHeart.” In essence, these stories were romances, largely due totheir love of the imaginary over the logical, and were told from many differentpoints of view. This literature gave birth to many other forms, such as suspense, ghost stories,horror, mystery, and also Poe's detective stories. Gothic literature wasn't so different from other genres in form as it was in contentand its focus on the "weird" aspects of life. This movement began toslowly open may people's eyes to the possible uses ofthe supernatural in literature. Jerry Taylor, Student, University of North Carolina at Pembroke
 

H

hyperbole(hi-per-bo-lee): an extravagant exaggeration. Fromthe Greek for "overcasting," hyperbole is afigure of speech that is a grossly exaggerated description or statement. Inliterature, such exaggeration is used for emphasis or vivid descriptions. Indrama, hyperbole is quite common, especially in heroic drama. Hyperbole is afundamental part of both burlesque writing and the “tall tales”from Western America. The consciousoverstatements of these tales are forms of hyperbole. Many other examples ofhyperbole can be found in the romance fiction and comedy genres.Hyperbole is even a part of our day-to-day speech: ‘You’ve grownlike a bean sprout’ or ‘I’m older than the hills.’Hyperbole is used to increase the effect of a description, whether it ismetaphoric or comic. In poetry, hyperbole can emphasize or dramatize aperson’s opinions or emotions. Skilled poets use hyperbole to describeintense emotions and mental states. Othello uses hyperbole to describe hisanger at the possibility of Iago lying about hiswife’s infidelity in Act III, Scene III of Shakespeare’s play Othello:

If thou dost slander her and torture me,
Never pray more; abandon all remorse;
On horror’s head accumulate;
Do deeds to make heaven weep, all earth amazed;
For nothing canst thou to damnation add
Greater than that.

In this passage, Othello is telling Iagothat if he is lying then Othello will have no pity and Iagowill have no hope for salvation.  Adding horrors with still more horrors,Othello is describing his potential rage. Othello even declares that the Earthwill be confounded with horror at Othello’s actions in such a state ofmadness. See A Glossary of Literary Terms , A Handbook to Literature.Andy Stamper, Student, University of North Carolina atPembroke
 

I

irony (i-RAH-nee):  a literary term referring to how aperson, situation, statement, or circumstance is not as it would actually seem.Many times it is the exact opposite of what it appears to be. There are manytypes of irony, the three most common being verbal irony, dramatic irony, andcosmic irony. Verbal irony occurs when either the speaker means somethingtotally different than what he is saying or the audience realizes, because oftheir knowledge of the particular situation to which the speaker is referring,that the opposite of what a character is saying is true. Verbal irony alsooccurs when a character says something in jest that, in actuality, is true. In JuliusCaesar, Marc Antony’s reference to Brutus being an honorable man isan example of verbal irony. Marc Antony notes all of the good deeds JuliusCaesar did for his people while, more than once, heasks the rhetorical question, “Did this in Caesar seem ambitious?” Antony uses this rhetoricalquestion to try to convince his audience that Caesar is not ambitious,presenting Brutus as a dishonorable man because of his claim that Caesar wasambitious. Dramatic irony occurs when facts are not known to the characters ina work of literature but are known by the audience. In The Gospel According to St. John, the Pharisees say of Jesus, “Can any goodthing come out of Nazareth?”This is dramatic irony for the reader already knows, according to the author,that Jesus is the Savior of the world and has already done much good for thepeople by forgiving their sins and healing the sick and oppressed. ThePharisees are too blinded to see what good actually has come out of Nazareth. Cosmic ironysuggests that some unknown force brings about dire and dreadful events. Cosmicirony can be seen in Shakespeare’s Othello. Iagobegs his wife to steal Desdemona’s handkerchief so he can use this asconclusive proof that Cassio is having an affair withDesdemona. At the end of the play, when Othello tells Iago’swife about the handkerchief, she confesses that Iagoput her up to stealing it. Iago winds up being at Cassio’s mercy. The very handkerchief Iago thought would allow him to become lieutenant and bringCassio to ruins was the handkerchief that brought Iago to ruins and exalted Cassioeven higher than his position of lieutenant. Irony spices up a literary work byadding unexpected twists and allowing the reader to become more involved withthe characters and plot. See A Handbook to Literature, The Elementsof Fiction Writing: Characters and Viewpoint. Robert Bean, Student, University of North Carolina at Pembroke
 

J

 

K

L

lyric(LEER-ick): a lyric is a song-like poem writtenmainly to express the feelings of emotions or thought from a particular person,thus separating it from narrative poems. Thesepoems are generally short, averaging roughly twelve to thirty lines, and rarelygo beyond sixty lines. These poems express vivid imagination as well as emotionand all flow fairly concisely. Because of this aspect, as well as their steadyrhythm, they were often used in song. In fact, most people still see a"lyric" as anything that is sung along to a musical instrument. It isbelieved that the lyric began in its earliest stage in Ancient Egypt around2600 BC in the forms of elegies, odes, or hymns generated out of religiousceremonies. Some of the more note-worthy authors who have used the lyricinclude William Blake, William Wordsworth, John Keats, and William Shakespeare-whohelped popularize the sonnet, another type of lyric. The importance ofunderstanding the lyric can best be shown through its remarkable ability toexpress with such imagination the innermost emotions of the soul. See TheAmerican Heritage Dictionary of the English Language. Jerry Taylor,Student, University of North Carolina atPembroke
 

M

metaphor(met-AH-for) [from the Gk. carrying one place to another]: a type of figurative language in which a statement is madethat says that one thing is something else but, literally, it is not. Inconnecting one object, event, or place, to another, a metaphor can uncover newand intriguing qualities of the original thing that we may not normally noticeor even consider important. Metaphoric language is used in order to realize anew and different meaning. As an effect, a metaphor functions primarily toincrease stylistic colorfulness and variety. Metaphor is a great contributor topoetry when the reader understands a likeness between two essentially differentthings. In his Poetics, Aristotle claims that for one to master the useof metaphor is “…a sign of genius, since a good metaphor implies anintuitive perception of the similarity in dissimilars”(The Poet's Dictionary). A metaphor may be found in a simple comparisonor largely as the image of an entire poem. For example, Emily Dickinson’spoem “My Life had stood – a Loaded Gun” makes use of a seriesof comparisons between the speaker and a gun. Dickinson opens the work with the following:“My Life had stood – a Loaded Gun - / Incorners – till a Day / The Owner passed – identified - / Andcarried me away”. Of course, the narrator is not really a gun.  Themetaphor carries with it all the qualities of a “Loaded Gun”. Thespeaker in the poem is making a series of comparisons between themselves andthe qualities of a gun. The narrator had been waiting a long time before theirlove found them. The narrator loves her fellow so desperately that she feels asa protective gun that would kill anyone wishing to harm him. To this effect, Dickinson writes,"To foe of His – I’m deadly foe –."  Dickinson’s poemends up being one extended comparison through the use of metaphor betweenherself and a gun with “…but the power to kill.”  See A Handbook to Literature, The Poet’s Dictionary,or A Glossary of Literary Terms (7th edition). Andy Stamper,Student, University of North Carolina atPembroke

metonymy(me-TAH-nah-me): a figure of speech which substitutes one term with anotherthat is being associated with the that term. A name transfer takes place todemonstrate an association of a whole to a part or how two things areassociated in some way. This allows a reader to recognize similarities orcommon features among terms. It may provide a more common meaning to a word.However, it may be a parallel shift that provides basically the same meaning;it is just said another way. For example, in the book of Genesis 3:19, itrefers to Adam by saying that “by the sweat of your brow, you will eatyour food.” Sweat represents the hard labor that Adam will have to endureto produce the food that will sustain his life. The sweat on his brow is avivid picture of how hard he is working to attain a goal. Another example is inGenesis 27:28 when Isaac tells Jacob that “God will give you...anabundance of grain and new wine.” This grain and wine represents thewealth that Jacob will attain by stealing the birth right. These riches arelike money that is for consumption or material possessions to trade for othergoods needed for survival. Furthermore, in the play Othello, Act I SceneI features metonymy when Iago refers to Othello as “ the devil” that “will make a grandsireof you.” This phrase represents a person that is seen as deceitful orevil. An understanding of metonymy aids a reader to see how an authorinterchanges words to further describe a term’s meaning. See AHandbook to Literature; Literature: An Introduction to Fiction, Poetry,and Drama; Literature: An Introduction to Fiction, Poetry, and Drama;or Merriam Webster Collegiate Dictionary. Melanie Stephens, Student, University of North Carolina at Pembroke

motif (moh-TEEF):a recurring object, concept, or structure in a work of literature. A motif mayalso be two contrasting elements in a work, such as good and evil. In the Bookof Genesis, we see the motif of separation again and again throughout thestory. In the very first chapter, God separates the light from the darkness.Abraham and his descendants are separated from the rest of the nation as God'schosen people. Joseph is separated from his brothers in order that life mightbe preserved. Another motif is water, seen in Genesis as a means of destroyingthe wicked and in Matthew as a means of remitting sins by the employment ofbaptism. Other motifs in Genesis and Matthew include blood sacrifices, fire,lambs, and goats. A motif is important because it allows one to see main pointsand themes that the author is trying to express, in order that one might beable to interpret the work more accurately. See A Handbook to Literature,The Concise OxfordDictionary of Literary Terms. Robert Bean,Student, University of North Carolina atPembroke

myth (mith):any story that attempts to explain how the world was created or why the worldis the way that it is. Myths are stories that are passed on from generation togeneration and normally involve religion. M.H. Abram refers to myths as a“religion in which we no longer believe.” Most myths were firstspread by oral tradition and then were written down in some literary form. Manyancient literary works are, in fact, myths as myths appear in every ancientculture of the planet. For example you can find them in ethnological tales,fairy tales as well as epics. A good example of a myth is The Book of Genesis, whichrecounts tales of the creation of the universe, the Earth and mankind. See A Glossary to Literary Terms, Webster’s Encylopedia of Literature. Becky Davis, Student, University of North Carolina at Pembroke
 

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narrative(na-RAH-tiv): a collection of events that tells astory, which may be true or not, placed in a particular order and recountedthrough either telling or writing. One example is Edgar Allen Poe's "TheTell-Tale Heart." In this story a madman resolves to kill his landlordbecause he fears the man's horrible eye. One night he suffocates the landlordand hides the body beneath the floorboards of the bedroom. While fieldingquestions from the police in the bedroom where the body is hidden, the madmanthinks he hears the heart of the victim beating beneath the floorboards. Scaredthat the police hear the heartbeat too, the madman confesses. This is anarrative because of two things, it has a sequence in which the events aretold, beginning with murder and ending with the confession, and it has anarrator, who is the madman, telling the story. By understanding the term"narrative,” one begins to understand that most literary works havea simple outline: the story, the plot, and the storyteller. By studying moreclosely, most novels and short stories are placed into the categories offirst-person and third-person narratives, which are based on who is telling thestory and from what perspective. Other important terms thatrelate to the term "narrative,” are "narrativepoetry," poetry that tells a story, and "narrative technique"which means how one tells a story.
 

narrative poem(nar-RAH-tiv po-EM): a poemthat tells a story. A narrative poem can come in many forms and styles, both complex and simple, short or long, as long as it tellsa story. A few examples of a narrative poem are epics, ballads,and metrical romances. In western literature, narrative poetry dates back tothe Babylonian epic of Gilgamesh and Homer's epics the Iliad and the Odyssey.In England and Scotland,storytelling poems have long been popular; in the late Middle Ages, ballads-orstorytelling songs-circulated widely. The art of narrative poetry is difficultin that it requires the author to possess the skills of a writer of fiction,the ability to draw characters and settings briefly, to engage attention, andto shape a plot, while calling for all the skills of a poet besides. See AHandbook of Literature and Literature: An Introduction to Fiction,Poetry, and Drama. Melissa Houghton, Student, University of North Carolina at Pembroke

narrator (nar-RAY-ter): one who tells a story, the speaker or the“voice” of an oral or written work. Although it can be, thenarrator is not usually the same person as the author. The narrator is one ofthree types of characters in a given work, (1) participant (protagonist or participant in any action that may takeplace in the story), (2) observer (someone who is indirectly involved in theaction of a story), or (3) non participant (one who is not at all involved inany action of the story). The narrator is the direct window into a piece ofwork. Depending on the part of the character of the narrator plays in thestory, the narrator may demonstrate bias when presenting a piece of work. Inthe Book of Matthew, the narrator Matthew, probablypresented some bias when giving his accounts of the events that took placeduring that time. See Introduction to Literature, A Handbook toLiterature. Heather Cameron, Student, University of North Carolina at Pembroke
 

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parable(PAIR-uh-buhl): a brief and often simple narrative that illustrates a moral or religious lesson.Some of the best-known parables are in the Bible, where Jesus uses themto teach his disciples. For example, in "The Parable of the GoodSeed," a farmer plants a garden. As the farmer sleeps, someone sows weedsin his field to destroy the farmer's crops. However, when he learns of his misfortune,he does not demolish his entire garden just to remove the weeds. The farmerwaits patiently until harvest time and gathers his wheat after the weeds havefirst been collected and destroyed. The lesson to be learned in this parable isto not be quick to annihilate evil; it will in deserving time receive itspunishment. Some other parables in the Bible are "The Parable of theProdigal Son" and "The Parable of the Mustard Seed." See TheEncyclopedia of Literature, A Handbook to Literature. Starlet Chavis, Student, University of North Carolina atPembroke

persona (per-SO-na): In literature, the persona is the narrator,or the storyteller, of a literary work created by the author. As Literature:An Introduction to Fiction, Poetry, and Drama puts it, the persona is notthe author, but the author’s creation--the voice “through which theauthor speaks.” It could be a character in thework, or a fabricated onlooker, relaying the sequence of events in a narrative.Such an example of persona exists in the poem “Robin Hood and Allin a Dale,” in which an anonymous character,perhaps one of Robin’s “merry men,” recounts the events ofthe meeting and adventures of Robin Hood and Allin aDale. After telling of their initial introduction in the forest, the personacontinues to elaborate on their quest to recover Allin’strue love from the man she is about to marry. Robin and his entourage succeedand then proceed to marry her and Allin a Dale. Thepersona’s importance is recognized due to the more genuine manner inwhich the events of a story are illustrated to the reader—with a sense ofknowledge and emotion only one with a firsthand view of the action coulddepict. See A Handbook to Literature, Merriam-Webster’sEncyclopedia of Literature, Literature:An Introduction to Fiction, Poetry, and Drama. Stephanie White, Student,University of North Carolina at Pembroke

personification{PER-son-E-fih-ka-shEn): A figure of speech whereanimals, ideas or inorganic objects are given human characteristics. Oneexample of this is James Stephens’s poem "The Wind" in whichwind preforms several actions. In the poem Stephenswrites, “The wind stood up and gave a shout. He whistled on his twofingers.” Of course the wind did not actually "stand up," butthis image of the wind creates a vivid picture of the wind's wild actions.Another example of personification in this poem is “Kicked the witheredleaves about….And thumped the branches with his hand.” Here, thewind is kicking leaves about, just like a person would and using hands to thumpbranches like a person would also. By giving human characteristics to thingsthat do not have them, it makes these objects and their actions easier tovisualize for a reader. By giving the wind human characteristics, Stephensmakes this poem more interesting and achieves a much more vivid image of theway wind whips around a room. Personification is most often used in poetry,coming to popularity during the 18th century. Jennifer Winborne,Student, University of North Carolina atPembroke

point of view(point ov veww): a way theevents of a story are conveyed to the reader, it is the “vantagepoint” from which the narrative is passed fromauthor to the reader. The point of view can vary from work to work. Forexample, in the Book of Genesis the objective third person point of viewis presented, where a “nonparticipant” serves as the narrator and has no insight into the characters'minds. The narrator presents the events using the pronouns he, it, they, andreveals no inner thoughts of the characters. In Edgar Allan Poe’s shortstory “The Cask of Amontillado” the first person point of view isexhibited. In this instance the main character conveys the incidents heencounters, as well as giving the reader insight into himself as he reveals histhoughts, feelings, and intentions. Many other points of view exist, such asomniscient (or “all knowing”) in which the narrator “movesfrom one character to another as necessary” to provide thosecharacter’s respective motivations and emotions. Understanding the pointof view used in a work is critical to understanding literature; it serves asthe instrument to relay the events of a story, and in some instances thefeelings and motives of the character(s). See A Handbook to Literature, Literature:An Introduction to Fiction, Poetry, and Drama. Stephanie White, Student,University of North Carolina at Pembroke

protagonist(pro-TAG-eh-nist) A protagonist is considered to bethe main character or lead figure in a novel, play,story, or poem.  It may also be referred to as the "hero" of awork. Over a period of time the meaning of the term protagonist has changed.The word protagonist originated in ancient Greek drama and referred to theleader of a chorus. Soon the definition was changed to represent the firstactor onstage. In some literature today it may be difficult to decide who isplaying the role of the protagonist. For instance, in Othello,we could say that Iago isthe protagonist because he was at the center of all of the play's controversy.But even if he was a main character, was he the lead character? This ambiguitycan lead to multiple interpretations of the same work and different ways ofappreciating a single piece of literature. See MerrianWebster Encyclopedia of Literature, Benet’s Readers Encyclopediaof Literature. Khalil Shakeel, Student, University of North Carolinaat Pembroke
 

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rhyme(rime): repetition of an identical or similarly accented sound or sounds in awork. Lyricists may find multiple ways to rhyme within a verse. End rhymes havewords that rhyme at the end of a verse-line. Internal rhymes have words thatrhyme within it.  Algernon C. Swinburne (1837-1909), a rebel and Englishpoet, used internal rhymes in many of his Victorian poems such as“sister, my sister, O fleet sweet swallow.” There are cross rhymesin which the rhyme occurs at the end of one line and in the middle of the next;and random rhymes, in which the rhymes seem to occur accidentally in nospecific combination, often mixed with unrhymed lines. These sortof rhymes try to bring a creative edge to verses that usually have perfect rhymesin a sequential order. Historically, rhyme came into poetry late, showing inthe Western world around AD 200 in the Church Latin of North Africa. Itspopularity grew in Medieval Latin poetry. The frequently used spelling inEnglish, r*h*y*m*e , comes from a false identificationof the Greek word “rhythmos.”  Itstrue origin comes from Provencal, which is a relation to Provence,a region of France.The  traditional Scottish ballad,“Edward,” uses end rhymes to describe what he has done with hissword and property:

And what wul ye doe wi’ your towirsand your ha’
That were sae fair to see, O?
Ile let thame stand tulthey doun fa’

Rhyme gives poems flow and rhythm, helping the lyricist tella story and convey a mood. See A Handbook to Literature, Benet’sReader’s Encyclopedia, Webster’s Third New InternationalDictionary (unabridged), A Glossary ofLiterary Terms. Nancy Bullard, Student, University of North Carolina at Pembroke
 

rhyme scheme(rime skeem): the pattern of rhymeused in a poem, generally indicated by matching lowercase letters to show whichlines rhyme. The letter "a" notes the first line, and all other linesrhyming with the first line. The first line that does not rhyme with the first,or "a" line, and all others that rhyme with this line, is noted bythe letter "b", and so on. The rhyme scheme may follow a fixedpattern (as in a sonnet) or may be arranged freely according to the poet'srequirements. The use of a scheme, or pattern, came about before poems werewritten down; when they were passed along in song or oral poetry. Since many ofthese poems were long, telling of great heroes, battles, and other importantcultural events, the rhyme scheme helped with memorization. A rhyme scheme alsohelps give a verse movement, providing a break before changing thoughts. Thefour-line stanza, or quatrain, is usually written with the first line rhymingwith the third line, and the second line rhyming with the fourth line, abab. The English sonnet generally has three quatrains anda couplet, such as abab, cdcd,efef, gg. The Italiansonnet has two quatrains and a sestet, or six-line stanza, such as abba, abba, cde,cde. Rhyme schemes were adapted to meet the artisticand expressive needs of the poet. Henry Howard Surrey is credited withintroducing the sonnet form to England. This form differed from the Italian form because he found that there were fewerrhyming words in English than there were in Italian.

Shall I compare thee to a summer's day?
Thou art more lovely and more temperate.
Rough winds do shake the darling buds of May.
And summer's lease hath all too short a date.

Excerpt from Shakespeare's "Sonnet XVIII", rhymescheme: a b a b.
See Benet's Reader's Encyclopedia, Dictionary of Literary Terms, ADictionary of Literary Terms and Literary Theory, Microsoft EncartaEncyclopedia 2000. Nancy Bullard, Student, University of North Carolina at Pembroke.
 

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setting(set-ting): the time, place, physical details, and circumstances in which asituation occurs. Settings include the background, atmosphere or environment inwhich characters live and move, and usually includephysical characteristics of the surroundings. Settingsenables the reader to better envision how a story unfolds by relatingnecessary physical details of a piece of literature. A setting may be simple orelaborate, used to create ambiance, lend credibility or realism, emphasize oraccentuate, organize, or even distract the reader. Settings in the Bible aresimplistic. In the book of Genesis, we read about the creation of the universeand the lives of the descendants of Adam. Great detail is taken in documentingthe lineage, actions, and ages of the characters at milestones in their lives,yet remarkably little detail is given about physical characteristics of thelandscape and surroundings in which events occurred. In Genesis 20, we learnthat because of her beauty, Sarah’s identity is concealed to prevent thedeath of her husband, Abraham. Yet, we have no description of Sarah orAbraham’s hair, eye or skin color, height, weight, physical appearance,or surroundings. Detailed settings that were infrequent in some ancientwritings like the Bible are common in today’s literature. In recentliterature, settings are often described in elaborate detail, enabling thereader to vividly envision even imaginary characters and actions like thetravels of Bilbo Baggins in The Hobbit by J.R.R. Tolkien. Settings havea way of drawing the reader into a piece of literature while facilitatingunderstanding of the characters and their actions. Understanding the setting isuseful because it enables us to see how an author captures the attention of thereader by painting a mental picture using words. See Literature, AnIntroduction to Readingand Writing. Kate Endriga, Student, University of North Carolina at Pembroke

simile (sim-EH-lee): a simile is a type of figurative language, language that does not meanexactly what it says, that makes a comparison between two otherwise unalikeobjects or ideas by connecting them with the words "like" or"as." The reader can see a similar connection with the verbsresemble, compare and liken. Similes allow an author to emphasize a certain characteristicof an object by comparing that object to an unrelated object that is an exampleof that characteristic. An example of a simile can be seen in the poem“Robin Hood and Allin a Dale”:

With that came in a wealthy knight,
Which was both grave and old,
And after him a finikin lass,
Did shine like glistening gold.

In this poem, the lass did not literally glisten like gold,but by comparing the lass to the gold the author emphasizes her beauty,radiance and purity, all things associated with gold. Similarly, in N. Scott Momaday’s simple poem, “Simile.” he saysthat the two characters in the poem are like deer who walk in a single linewith their heads high with their ears forward and their eyes watchful. Bycomparing the walkers to the nervous deer, Momadayemphasizes their care and caution. See A Handbook to Literature or Literature:An Introduction to Fiction, Poetry, and Drama. Crystal Burnette, Student, University of North Carolina at Pembroke

short story(short store-ey): a prose narrativethat is brief in nature. The short story also has many of the samecharacteristics of a novel including characters, setting and plot. However, dueto length constraints, these characteristics and devices generally may not beas fully developed or as complex as those developed for a full-length novel.There are many authors well known for the short story including Edgar AllanPoe, Sherwood Anderson and Ernest Hemingway. According to thebook Literary Terms by Karl Becksonand Arthur Ganz, “American writers since Poe, who firsttheorized on the structure and purpose of the short story, have paidconsiderable attention to the form” (257). The written“protocol” regarding what comprises a short versus a long story isvague. However, a general standard might be that the short story could be readin one sitting. NTC’s Dictionary of LiteraryTerms quotes Edgar Allan Poe’s description as being ‘a shortprose narrative, requiring from a half-hour to one or two hours in itsperusal’ (201). Please refer to Literary Terms by Karl Beckson and Arthur Ganz and NTC’s Dictionary of Literary Terms by KathleenMorner and Ralph Rausch for further information. SusanSeverson, Student, University of North Carolina atPembroke

slant rhyme (slänt rime) is also known as near rhyme, half rhyme, offrhyme, imperfect rhyme, oblique rhyme, or pararhyme.A distinctive system or pattern of metrical structure and verse composition inwhich two words have only their final consonant sounds and no preceding vowelor consonant sounds in common. Instead of perfect or identical sounds or rhyme,it is the repetition of near or similar sounds or the pairing of accented andunaccented sounds that if both were accented would be perfect rhymes (stoppedand wept, parable and shell). Alliteration, assonance,and consonance are accepted as slant rhyme due to their usage of soundcombinations (spilled and spoiled, chitter andchatter). By not allowing the reader to predict or expect what is coming slantrhyme allows the poet to express things in different or certain ways. Slantrhyme was most common in the Irish, Welsh and Icelandic verse and prose longbefore Henry Vaughn used it in English. Not until William Butler Yeats andGerald Manley Hopkins began to use slant rhyme did it become regularly used in English.Wilfred Owen was one of the first poets to realizethe impact of rhyming consonants in a consistent pattern. A World War I soldierhe sought a powerful means to convey the harshness of war. Killed in action,his most famous work was written in the year prior to his death.

Now men will go content with what we spoiled
Or, discontent, boil bloody, and be spilled,
They will be swift with the swiftness of the tigress.
None will break ranks, though nations trek from progress.
Courage was mine, and I had mystery,
Wisdom was mine, and I had mastery:
To miss the march of this retreating world
Into vain citadels that are not walled.

See Benet's Reader Encyclopedia, Handbook to Literature,Literature: AnIntroduction to Fiction, Poetry, and Drama. Michael Prevatte,Student, University of North Carolina atPembroke

sonnet (sonn-IT): a sonnet is a distinctive poetic style that usessystem or pattern of metrical structure and verse composition usuallyconsisting of fourteen lines, arranged in a set rhymescheme or pattern. There are two main styles of sonnet, the Italian sonnetand the English sonnet. The Italian or Petrarchansonnet, named after Petrarch (1304-1374) a fourteenth century writer and thebest known poet to use this form, was developed by the Italian poet Guittone of Arezzo (1230-1294) in the thirteenth century.Usually written in iambic pentameter, it consists first of an octave, or eightlines, which asks a question or states a problem or proposition and follows therhyme scheme a-b-b-a, a-b-b-a. The sestet, or last six lines, offers an answer,or a resolution to the proposed problem, and follows the rhyme schemec-d-e-c-d-e.

When I consider how my light isspent
Ere half my days, in this dark world and wide,
And that one talent which is death to hide
Lodged with me useless, though my soul more bent
To serve therewith my Maker, and present
My true account, lest he returning chide;
"Doth God exact day-labor, light denied?"
I fondly ask; but Patience to prevent
That murmur, soon replies, "God doth not need
Either man's work or his own gifts; who best
Bear his mild yoke, they serve him best. His state
Is kingly. Thousands at his bidding speed
And post o'er land and ocean without rest:
They also serve who only stand and wait."

John Milton, "When I ConsiderHow My Light Is Spent"

The sonnet was first brought to England by Thomas Wyatt and HenryHoward, Earl of Surrey, in the sixteenth century, where the second sonnet form arose.The English or Shakespearean sonnet was named after William Shakespeare(1564-1616) who most believed to the best writer to use the form. Adapting theItalian form to the English, the octave and sestet were replaced by threequatrains, each having its own independent rhyme scheme typically rhyming everyother line, and ending with a rhyme couplet. Instead of the Italianicbreak between the octave and the sestet, the break comes between the twelfthand thirteenth lines. The ending couplet is often the main thought change ofthe poem, and has an epigrammatic ending. It follows therhyme scheme a-b-a-b, c-d-c-d, e-f-e-f, g-g.

  Shall I compare thee to a summer’s day?
  Thou art more lovely and more temperate:
  Rough winds do shake the darling buds of May,
  And summer’s lease hath all to short a date:
  Sometime too hot the eye of heaven shines,
  And often is his gold complexion dimm’d:
  And every fair from fair sometime declines,
  By chance, or nature’s changing course, untrimm’d.
  By thy eternal summer shall not fade
  Nor lose possession of that fair thou owest;
  Nor shall Death brag thou wandered in his shade,
  When in eternal lines to time thou growest:
  So long as men can breathe, or eyes can see,
  So long lives this, and this gives life to thee.

Shakespeare, Sonnet XVIII. See Benet’s ReadersEncyclopedia, Handbook to Literature, Literature:An Introduction to Fiction, Poetry, and Drama. Michael Prevatte, Student, University of North Carolina at Pembroke

symbol (sim-bol): a symbol is a word or object that stands foranother word or object. The object or word can be seen with the eye or notvisible. For example a dove stands for Peace. The dove can be seen and peacecannot. The word is from the Greek word symbolom. Alllanguage is symbolizing one thing or another. However when we read the book ofGenesis it talked about a few symbols. In the story of Adam and Eve when Eveate the apple, the apple stood for sin. Another reading Cainand Able. The two brothers stood for good and evil, humility and pride.Cain pulled Able to the fields and killed him. In this it is a hidden symbol.It is showing that Cain stands for the bad and Ablestands for the good. See The Encyclopedia of Literature and AHandbook to Literature. Misty Tarlton,Student, University of North Carolina atPembroke
 

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theme (theem): a common thread or repeated idea that isincorporated throughout a literary work. A theme is a thought or idea theauthor presents to the reader that may be deep, difficult to understand, oreven moralistic. Generally, a theme has to be extracted as the reader exploresthe passages of a work. The author utilizes the characters, plot, and otherliterary devices to assist the reader in this endeavor. One theme that may beextracted by the reader of Mark Musa’s interpretation of Dante’s TheDivine Comedy Volume I: Inferno is the need to take account ofone’s own behavior now, for it affects one's condition in the afterlife.One example of this theme can be found in Canto V - “...when the evilsoul appears before him, it confesses all, and he [Minos],who is the expert judge of sins, knows to what place in Hell the soul belongs:the times he wraps his tail around himself tells just how far the sinner mustgo down” (7-12). In addition, Dante’s use of literary techniques,such as imagery, further accentuates the theme for the consequences of notliving right, for he describes “the cries and shrieks oflamentation” (III:22), “…the bankswere coated with a slimy mold that stuck to them like glue, disgusting tobehold and worse to smell” (XVIII:106-108) and many other terrifyingexamples of Hell. In truly great works of literature, the author intertwinesthe theme throughout the work and the full impact is slowly realized as thereader processes the text. The ability to recognize a theme is importantbecause it allows the reader to understand part of the author’s purposein writing the book.  See Literature: An Introduction to Fiction,Poetry and Drama, NTC’sDictionary of Literary Terms, and Literary Terms: ADictionary. Susan Severson, Student, University of North Carolina at Pembroke
 

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unreliablenarrator (un-re-LIE-ah-bel nar-ra-AY-tor):one who gives his or her own understanding of a story, instead of theexplanation and interpretation the author wishes the audience to obtain. Thistype of action tends to alter the audience’s opinion of the conclusion.An author quite famous for using unreliable narrators is Henry James. James issaid to make himself an inconsistent and distorting “center ofconsciousness” in his work, because of his frequent usage of deluding orderanged narrators. They are very noticeable in his novella The Turn of theScrew, and also in his short story, “The AspernPapers.” The Turn of the Screw is a story based solely on theconsistency of the Governess’s description of the events thathappen.  Being aware of unreliable narrators are essential, especiallywhen you have to describe the characters and their actions to others, since thenarrator, unreliable as they are, abandons you without the important guidanceto make trustworthy judgments. See The Turn of the Screw and ADictionary of Literary Terms and Literary Theory. Starlet Chavis, Student, University of North Carolina atPembroke
 

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